Slavery in Ancient Rome Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Slavery in Ancient Rome - Research Paper Example There were unskilled slaves many of who had been condemned to slavery as punishment, or had been captured in war, and these were given very hard tasks to perform such as working on farms, in the mines or at mills and their living conditions tended to be very brutal and this made their life expectancy very low. It can therefore be said that slavery in ancient Rome was a part of its everyday life and that this institution is one of the core pillars, which kept this state running. A large number of the slaves in the Roman state were acquired through the warfare made by its army that always brought back captives in their hundreds and thousands from each war that they went to fight. Many of these wars were wars of expansion in which the defeated enemies were captured as well as civil wars and these captives were often sold to slave traders who in turn took them to the market and sold them to the highest bidder. In addition to those slaves captured in war, a large number of them came throu gh the slave traffic of Thrace and perhaps the most famous Thracian importee was Spartacus, who years later would come to lead a great revolt against his new masters (Koester 766). Piracy was among the biggest contributors to the slave market because an increase in the activities of pirates also led to an increase in slavery in the Roman state because they ensured a large supply of slaves from the places they raided. Most slaves worked in unskilled jobs from prostitution and cleaning to mining, shepherding and manning oars. However, there are some who worked in relative comfort as secretaries and physicians (Bradley 477). In addition to the tasks, which they were given as their duties, slaves had very few rights and in fact, they were not allowed to refuse their masters anything, even if it was unwanted sexual advances. In the Roman state, the largest number of slaves was used for agricultural labor because the growing size of both the population and the empire needed plenty of food to sustain them. Therefore, it is true to say there tended to be more slaves in the rural areas than in the urban areas and these worked on the farms. Slaves used to be assigned to mines as punishment for perceived transgressions against their masters, and this was the same as sentencing them to death because the chances of surviving long in the mines were very slim. Farm slaves faired fairly well considering that they had plenty of food to eat where they worked as well as their work being seasonal unlike other slaves who had to work very hard throughout for their masters, while household slaves of the rich families of Rome enjoyed the highest standards of living among the slaves of this state. Moreover, it was very rare for them to be whims subject of their masters compared to other slaves because many of them had specialized duties, which they tended to carry out without being asked by their masters. Many of these household slaves had lodgings, which were far much better than tho se of some of the free Roman population were and in fact, they often did much better than the latter economically. These household slaves could be found doing very specialized jobs such as working as barbers, hairdressers, and even as teachers and

India in Medieval Time Essay Example for Free

India in Medieval Time Essay Structure of society was that it was divided in caste system. There was a strong caste system in India that we don’t see in Europe. Since it was mainly an agriculture based society that demands caste system for an efficiently working society. Since areas were ruled individually there was difference in society structure in different areas too. They had different gods and thus different rituals. On other hand most people in Europe did farming too but they were servants, peasants or serfs. FAMILY People lived in joint family system i.e. husband wife their children grand children their wives all lived under same roof. The eldest male person was used to be the head of family. Even today in many parts of India and even in Pakistan still live in joint family system. They had importance of respecting their elders such as saying namaste (used to greet others on meeting) and they touch feet of elders, gurus and their gods out of respect. Arrange marriages were planned. Family elders used to decide where to marry their child after verifying the age, height, looks, family values, financial background of family and matching their horoscopes. There was tradition of taking dowry that we can still see in our society. POSITION OF WOMEN In my point of view I don’t think women had good status in India in middle ages. Their marriage, up bringing and widowhood depended upon which caste they are from. They had tradition of sati. Sati means â€Å"true wife† and the tradition was that the women whose husband died was burnt alive to prove her loyalty and love for her husband and to be with him in after life. The women who were not burnt were suppose to live very simple life, no make-up and jewelry, had to wear white sari and sleep on floor and only one meal a day without honey, meat, wine and salt. Today this is against law of India. Treating women in such way is ridiculous they should have as much right to live as men. On other hand in Europe women could remarry. RELIGION Different religions were followed in India in medieval time like Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism and later Islam spread by Sufis. They had a number of religious festivals that they still celebrate today. Navratri, diwali, ganesh chathruti, durga poja, holi, rakshabandhan and dussehra are the religious festivals of Hinduism. People believe in different gods thus they have different rituals and temples. â€Å"the belief that rituals bestow authority and power was widespread and additional incentive was the promise of heavenly rewards.† (Thapar, 2002) People of a region had usually different god than other like some people worshipped durga while other worshipped shiva and so on. But they did respect other gods too. Later when Arabs invaded ths area Sufis came along with them and mixed up with local society and gradually preached them and converted them to Islam. It wasn’t spread by force. We can easily see the diversiy of religion in India. In Europe Christianity was the centre of everything. Church was the centre of society. There was difference between eastern church and western church.one was called orthodox church and other was the catholic church. Islam also spread in Europe. In medieval times, Muslims governed Jerusalem. Jerusalem  is sacred to both Christians and Muslims. To Christians, it is the birth place of Christ, Christ spend most of his time in this city and was crucified here. To Muslims, dome of the rock is in this city which is the very place from where Muhammad (P.B.U.H) ascended to heavens. Initially, Muslims let the Christian pilgrims to visit this holy city but in 1070s Turks conquered Jerusalem who was also Muslim. They didn’t allow Christians to visit their holy sites and mistreated them. They also threatened Byzantium Empire. This became the basis of a series of holy wars called crusades. By the end of the 11th century, the emperor of Byzantine Alexius I was threatened by the Seljuk Turks. He asked the pope Gregory VII for assistance so that they can save themselves. Thousands of the Christians responded to this call and thus resulted in the first Crusade. The plans of Gregory VII were taken up by Pope Urban II who gave this plan a proper direction. Thus the idea of the first crusade is attributed to him. Even though, Europeans were unable to get their required results through the crusades, the crusades affected the world in many ways. Christians started the crusades in name of religion and their religion was affected the most. In fourth crusade western Christians on their way killed eastern Christians in Constantinople. They also killed Christians on basis that they dressed like Muslims. This was the time when Orthodox Church and Catholic Church separated completely and their conflict still remains. The Europeans were the ones having the major positive effects as a result of crusades. One of the biggest benefits was the trade of spices and luxury textiles. They also bring along with them many medicines and ways of treatments from Arab and Persia the crusades also aided the beginning of Renaissance in Italy. The history of Crusades in my opinion was more political than religious. It was a war for more power and authority. The Christians fought it in the name of God but the real name was different. They only wanted to make Muslims weaker. Even if we look in today’s world and all the War against terrorism, they are no more than occupying Muslim land geographically important for the  west and not for any religious reasons. POLITICS Gupta Empire ended in 500 C.E. after that people ruled regionally. There were many kings ruling locally. The doctrine of mandalas was very important here which was that king of one region was enemy of its immediate neighbor and was friends with the king of neighbor’s immediate neighbor. So they make ties with other king to attack and conquer. Since religion was the most important thing at that time the temples were rich with the gifts offered by pilgrims. People offered the best they had to please their gods. The muslims invaded these areas because they wanted to capture the temples wealth not because they wanted to spread Islam. Local kings also used to do the same thing. Some dynasties that ruled the southern part were the pallavas, cera, pandyas. The main kingdoms in northern areas were chaulakyas, dantidurga, Al-Balhara, Al-jurz or gurjara pratihara and dharma palas. All of them wanted to have control over Kanauj to have better strategic control since it was the central point. These kingdoms declined because they knew each others strengths and weaknesses and were attacked by Arabs. Arab forces entered India through Khyber pass, bolan pass and gomal pass. In 9th and 10th century rajputs became prominent. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered sindh in 712 C.E. Number of small kingdoms rose with rulers of Turkish origin. Among them was a kingdom with a ruler Mahmud centered at Ghazni (in Afghanistan). ‘For him, India was a wealthy land always appearing rich and attractive from the barren mountains of Hindu Kush’. (Thapar,2002) His aim was to capture the temples to take away the wealth. He destroyed the temple of Somnatha for the very reason. In 1026, Mahmud raided Somanatha, desecrated the temple and broke the idol. The event is described in Turko-Persian and Arab sources. The popular view is that Mahmud’s raid on Somanatha was such a trauma for the Hindus that it became seminal to the Hindu-Muslim antagonism of recent times. Yet there is no reference in contemporary or near contemporary local sources of the raid on Somanatha. Jaina sources describe the renovation of the temple by Kumarapala, the Chaulukya King, due to lack of maintenance by local officers  and natural decay of age. It would seem that Mahmud’s raid had not left a long-lasting impression. The earliest claim that the raid resulted in trauma for the Hindu was made not in India but in Britain, during a debate in the House of Commons in 1843.’ (Thapar, 2002) Muhmud Ghuri also attacked India. Thus we can see the diversity in India very clearly. Sufis came here with invaders, scientists and philosophers also came here. Thus there was a exchange of culture and thus the diversity of Indian culture continues. On the other hand Europe had religious conflicts between eastern Europe and western Europe. Arabs also attacked and conquered them. European kings felt so threatened and their result we can see in form of crusades. Spain became great Muslim centre where dynasties like Abbasis, Ummaids and Fatmids ruled. In Europe we can’t see as much diversity as we do in India. ECONOMY People of India used to do basically farming. Their major occupation was agriculture for which caste system developed. This was also one reason why Islam didn’t spread in India in beginning because they needed caste system for agriculture and Islam teaches equality. India was very rich in agriculture and produced spices and traded them. TRADE CENTRES Some cities were important with trade point of view. Cities like Madurai, Vanji, Vatapi, Tamraliptri, Kanauj, Ujjain, Broach and Pataliputra were considered as trade centres. Trade was done through both land and sea. TRADE ROUTES Silk route was a major trade route. Other trade routes included port of Varanasi, Goa, Mathura, Puna and Patna. TRADING COUNTRIES India did trading with Arabia, Persia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Java, Sumatra,  Indo-China and China. Europe came to know about Indian products very well after crusades infact major reason of crusades was to start trade with India. EXPORTS Silk, gems, bleached cloth, pearls, spices, ivory and diamonds were exported. Pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe in exchange of gold and silver. ART AND ARCHITECTURE Like all other factors art and architecture of India was also very diverse. There was different style of architecture in north than south side of India. Temples of south India were built in Dravadian style of architecture with carved sculptures. In north side nagara style of architecture was used. In the regions in between north and south vasera (hybrid style) was implemented. When muslims came here they made buildings in their own style of architecture. Beautiful mosques, tombs, havelis and forts were made in medieval time. [pic] [pic] Mahabodhi temple Mahakeleshwar temple Muslims built qutub minar delhi mosque etc. which have architecture entirely different than temples. [pic] There were number of different languages. Each region had a language of their own and there was a single language that was used as official language. Vedic scriptures puranas etc were compiled. Quran and sunnah was being compiled by Arabs. In Europe church was most dominant. All the art and architecture was devoted  to the church. The main architectural styles developed were gothic and Romanesque. Romanesque church followed horizontal lines whereas gothic was much heightened and detailed. Gothic style pointed arch is used that can take more load and flying buttresses were introduced. Castles were built for defence purposes. They consist of small square towers, usually of wood, planted on hilltops or artificial mounds and had small windows. Material used for construction was stone, mortar and wood. [pic] Wells cathedral (Gothic style) [pic] Romanesque style The churches were decorated with sculptures and paintings. Since it was a religion based society they worked for churches without wages. Church was in centre of city built on highest mound or hill and was highest and other buildings were built around it having low heights. Muslims also made mosques in Europe too. EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY Most people in India were educated. They had gurus, scholars and there was the oldest university in Taxila. A British scholar leigtner said in later British rule that these are educated people and they should be taught in their own native tongue. Whereas in Europe there were monasteries that only gave religious education. They weren’t aware of scientific knowledge until they came across Arabs and Indians. Mahmud of gazni when came to India brought along a philosopher named Al Beruni who wrote book on India names tahqiq al hind. Main invention in medieval time were weapons, nautical inventions, clock, numbering system, astrolabes, sundial, compass etc. CONCLUSION Keeping in view all the points mentioned above we can say that India is very rich in culture at all times. Its history is so diverse in all aspects whether its society, culture, religion, politics, economy, art and architecture. In general it is said that there were dark ages throughout the world which based upon above discussion is not true. Dark ages were only in Europe since there were wars and was only religious based society and there was no advancement technologically whereas India was progressing and by looking at its diversity and advancements tells us that it wasnt in dark ages at all. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historians_in_mediaeval_Britain http://www.yourchildlearns.com/castle_history.htm http://www.medieval-castle.com/history.htm http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/medsoc/11.shtml http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/medsoc/09.shtml http://www.hyw.com/books/history/medieval.htm http://www.medieval-life-and-times.info/medieval-art/medieval-artists.htm http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/medieval-artists.htm http://www.castles.me.uk/gothic-architecture.htm http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3082/2693488596_950b824822.jpg http://www.nashfordpublishing.co.uk/photos/wells_cathedral.jpg http://historymedren.about.com/library/atlas/maps/navieurope.gif http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg http://web.nickshanks.com/history/medieval/manor http://web.nickshanks.com/history/medieval/trading http://science.jrank.org/pages/9077/Education-in-Europe-Medieval-Education.html http://www.allempires.net/education-in-medieval-europe_topic18280_post339921.html http://www.csupomona.edu/~plin/ls201/medieval2.html https://qed.princeton.edu/getfile.php?f=North-West_Regions_of_Medieval_India_-

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony?

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony? This essays attempts to reach a conclusion regarding eyewitness testimonies and the extent of its reliability. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. The acquisition stage is the period where the witness experiences the event. The retention stage is the period between the time the event ends and the time the witness are asked for a recount or questioned about the event. The retrieval stage is the period where the witness is providing information from their recall. During the acquisition stage, research regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event (for example, time), violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress was analysed. During the retention stage, research regarding post-event information, introduction of conflicting information and introduction of misleading information was analysed. During the retrieval stage, research regarding method of questioning, leading questions and a case study of an actual event was analysed. Experiments and case studies regarding these factors were then evaluated to weigh the impact that it had on eyewitness testimony. In conclusion, it was found that experiments regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability but there are also some findings that dispute this. Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable only to a small extent though it can be highly accurate under certain conditions. Applications of this conclusion includes jurors being more aware of the factors regarding eyewitness testimony and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts. Word Count: 252 words Introduction Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capability of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded due to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that affect memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has become an issue of importance due to the high percentage of errors in identifying and prosecuting accused individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials should be reviewed. Memory is defined as a kind of repository in which facts (information) may be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage (1971), memory is made up of three different types of information stores, each with different duration, capacity and function. The first is Sensory Memory. This type of store lasts for the spilt second when individuals collect information from their sensory systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are limited in their ability to store information about the world in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for further memory processing into the next type of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is Short-term memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be used and lasts approximately between 15 to 30 s econds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that Short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are carried out, the information will be transferred to the last type of memory store, Long-term Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is constantly being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is taken from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval. Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may not have been perceived in the first place, information may be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition Process During the acquisition process, there are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event such as exposure time or stress. This can be divided into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay will evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Exposure time to the event or object of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tested subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, showed one at a time of different positions of a human face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hair and complexion with glasses and another with a darker-colored hair and complexion without glasses. The independent variable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty-two seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately eight minutes after exposure to identify the target within a series of 150 slides of human faces. The dependant variable is the accuracy of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight percentof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds correctly identified the target but only forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is significant as it is very scientific and precisely tested a specific variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial environment and thus, has low ecological validity. The research may also contain cultural and gender bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable. Estimating factors such as time, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects estimation of time. Four hundred and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had given their written and oral reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On average, subjects gave an estimate of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a real situation by staging an attack where a student attacked a professor in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that there is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action. Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive violent and non-violent events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched either one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were involved in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the start and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was found that regardless of gender, the level of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a higher rate of inaccuracy. Though the results are significant due to the hi gh reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not actually experience the event. An event factor that is linked to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon. This rises the stress level of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a fast food restaurant. Half the subjects saw a customer pointing a gun at the cashier while the other half, the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the level of accuracy of the weapon group was fifty-six percent while the level of accuracy for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriously hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity. During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance of the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different ethical standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which t here is a decrement. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention Process Eye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to stop at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. All other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered seeing a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a specific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might be compromised. A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to answer a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The critical question was How many demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve reported an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information. Similar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident after which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be modified by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experie nce the incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively affect their account. McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides depicting an event, participants received a narrative of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The critical question concerning the tool had the original item as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and seventy-two percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment suppor ts the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting; the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval Process Most evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on the reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory. The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a murder in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high. Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the words smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, p Contending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmers (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not alter in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event t hat was relatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one case study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies. Conclusion This essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated. Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlation of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process . This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors like, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability. As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable only to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate. Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being more wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay. References Atkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford University Easterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of Emotion on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201 Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the History of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/Law/ Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, New York, Oxford University Press Loftus, E. F; Loftus, G. R; Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62 Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of Washington Loftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University Press Yullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 71(2), May 1986, 291-301 Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology: Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc. Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Japanimation Essay examples -- Japanese Animation Art Artistic Essays

Japanimation Japanimation (Japanese animation) is becoming one of Japan's most popular exports to the world; it has become a growing phenomenon in the US. Anime has attracted hordes of fans in many countries; the artistic detail, and the intriguing and the outrageous storylines are causing fans to be addicted. College fan clubs, societies, and the Internet have popularized anime (derived from a French word, but is used in Japan to describe animation) to the point of conventions being held all over the world. Anime ratings range from â€Å"G† to â€Å"NC-17.† These ratings only exist when they are imported into the US, as in Japan their rating system is different. The Japanese air shows on television that contains a lot of violence and nudity in it. On American television, extreme violence and nudity is prohibited for children, especially if the show is animated. Some animes are cute and are made specifically for children; then there are animes that are for teenagers that have romanc e, love, and everyday situations that teenagers go through. The most gruesome kind of anime consists of bloodshed, violence, nudity, sex, and bad language. Ding said, "Well first of all, when you have Saturday morning cartoons on channel twenty and fifty, people thirst for good animation and something different. Anime is just that, Americans have never seen or even thought of extreme violence, nudity, or cussing in cartoons. Since the Japanese don't think that nudity in cartoons is lewd, no one in Japan cares if they see someone naked popping up on the screen" (G. Ding, personal communication, November 2, 2000). Borshansky stated, "American cartoon culture finally got tired of Donald Duck and Mickey Mouse. They wanted some depth to cartoons, compelling... ...ory of Anime. (1996). Retrieve April 20, 2003 from the World Wide Web. http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.5/articles/patten1.5.html O'Connell, M. Japanese Manga and Animation: A Brief History of Animation. (2000). Retrieve April 20, 2003 from the World Wide Web. http://www.uncc.edu/~medomoto/3209/anime/anime_history.html Simmons, M. (2000, November). Pokemon: The first movie. Animerica, 7, 7-11. The Right Stuf International Inc. The right stuf - An introduction to anime. (1996). Retrieved April 20, 2003 from the World Wide Web. http://www.rightstuf.com/resource/globalhistory.shtml History of Japanese anime. The origins of anime. (No date). Retrieved November 2, 2000 from the World Wide Web. http://www.mvhs.net/~animetq/frames.html Pokemon Information. March 18, 2004 from the World Wide Web. http://mcel.pacificu.edu/as/students/pokemon/info.html

How is Crooks Depicted in Of Mice and Men? Essay

We see that Crooks falls into the lower, working class category. We know this because the people on the ranch look down on him because he is black and hasn’t got as many rights as the white men in the working class. We think that Steinbeck tries to show that it he is in the lower class by showing the segregation and discrimination put upon Crooks. He had shown that it was normal to be racist in the 1930’s because when the men called Crooks a nigger, they didn’t mean to hurt Crooks by it. As everyone is racist, others think its normal to discriminate and racially abuse Crooks and think nothing of it. The effect on the reader is that it shocks them to see the men using the word nigger and having no effect on the other men on the ranch by saying it. This is because nowadays, it is unlawful to discriminate against colour or race so if the word nigger is used to discriminate today, many people will feel disgraced. Today we think that Crooks would fall into the higher working class as he is polite, friendly, hardworking and old, Disregarding his colour as today the colour of someone’s skin doesn’t make a difference. Crook’s class is evident as he is segregated From the white men by living in the barn and doesn’t socialise with them because of the jim crow laws limiting the social rights of the black people. Another reason for why Crooks isnt allowed to socialise is because of the KKK who would attack anyone who associated with Crooks so people were to scared to do that. He is treated like a pet because he has less possessions than his owner (boss. ) he has a bed which is a box of straw. Also his name is discriminating him once again by judging his appearance and drawing attention to his disability. We think that if the Jim Crow laws didn’t exist, Crooks would have been able to break the barrier between some of the white men who were interested in making friends and loaning for some company. However, we think that even if Jim Crow laws didn’t exist, some men would still be treated differently. An example is Lennie, Candy and Curley’s wife. We think that Steinbeck is interested in opening the doors to the different segments of society in the 1930’s. He intends to show how black people were severely segregated and separate so that Crooks’ ability to socialise with the white men was prevented.

Self-determination of Africans in the U.S. Essays - Autonomy

Self-determination of Africans in the U.S. Essays - Autonomy Self-determination of Africans in the U.S. March 23rd, 2015 Intro to Afro-American Studies Dr. Carr Framing Question #3: What are some of the similarities and differences in practices of self- determination of Africans in the U.S. and their counterparts throughout the hemisphere? Abstract: African resistance shaped to local, regional and national elements of the Modern World System social structures. By the late seventeenth and eighteenth century, many African learned how to resist the temptations of slavery. They learned these techniques of resistance from the white people in the United States and the Western Hemisphere. Because they learned such techniques, Africans were able to emerge and started to revolt to resist enslavement. Because of the many sacrifices that Africans had made they were able to sustain their culture, making it the origin of humankind. Africans finally realized that if they were going to overcome enslavement that they had to overcome dominating social structure. Critical Review of Scholarship: In order to answer this framing question, I will be using information from Dr.Carrs lecture and information from the power points that were provided to us as well as the books that were given in the beginning of the semester. African people practiced self-determination in many ways and depending on social structure, they were able to find themselves, according to Cedric Robinson. In order to continue practicing these practice of self-determination they joined alongside the British in the American Revolution. Africans joined alongside the British in hope of obtaining their freedom and finally being considered as civilized and equal people. This book offered an large amount of information on the Africans struggle for resistance of enslavement. Discussion: Africans in the United States had significantly adapted their techniques of resistance to the particular contexts of the emerging U.S. nation-state, even as Africans elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere had done the same in their respective countries/colonies. Instances of maroonage, quilombismo, or other attempts to convene Black spaces in which to self-determine began to follow the racial, class, gender and cultural particularities of the Europeanizing impulses. This abstract of framing question gives segue to what is going to be talked about and looked for when answering this framing question. There were several themes that struck me related to this topic such as maroonage. Maroonage had seemed to be a common way that Africans resisted enslavement. Maroons were said to be small private communities that served as a safe haven for runaway slaves and indentured servants, people where equal and there was no hierarchy. Some similarities between slaves in this hemisphere were the use of culture to resist enslavement, which was through art, music, dance, and literature. Some differences were that Africans that were freed forgot their roots and the foundations in which they came from. This caused a disconnect between traditional Africans and those who were more into the world. Such disconnect cause discord and much disagreement amongst Africans. They did this thinking that the Europeans would accept them into their culture instead they were actually manipulating them and breaking them apart. They continued on the verge of enslaving Africans and selling them for profit. Further Questions: -Why did the Africans that were freed actually think that the Europeans would accept them into their society so easily? -Why didnt the Africans that were freed stick by the other Africans side of those who were not freed?